This report synthesizes findings from 26 background studies on forced displacement and social cohesion, prepared under the “Building the Evidence on Protracted Forced Displacement: A Multi-Stakeholder Partnership,” established in 2016 by the UK Government, the World Bank, and UNHCR.
The studies are geographically and methodologically diverse, covering low-, middle-, and high-income countries across Africa, Asia, Central and South America, and Europe. They utilize various research designs, including qualitative case studies, natural experiments, survey experiments, and cross-national quantitative analyses.
Main findings:
- Displacement directly affects social cohesion outcomes among the displaced. Displacement negatively impacts the socioeconomic conditions of the displaced, leading to lower incomes, increased hunger risk, and reduced access to housing and property, which can create inequalities and social tension. Labor market integration varies by age and sex, with younger and male refugees integrating faster. Different displacement experiences, such as extortion, violence, and whether refuge is found domestically or internationally, affect income and education levels. However, displacement can also enhance social cohesion by empowering individuals socially and politically, and increasing civic engagement.
- Displacement affects social cohesion by shaping the attitudes and behavior of host communities. Host community attitudes toward refugees are influenced by socioeconomic class, ethno-linguistic and geographic proximity, urban versus camp settings, and economic versus humanitarian priorities. Generally, the presence of displaced persons does not undermine social cohesion in host communities. Refugee inflows can improve services in host communities, fostering neutral or positive attitudes. However, large refugee returns can reduce social cohesion, especially where land is scarce, though impacts vary across different aspects of social cohesion.
- Pre-existing socioeconomic conditions and attitudes in host communities moderate how displacement affects social cohesion. Negative economic conditions and support for exclusionary policies weaken social cohesion, while better economic conditions can reduce negative responses to refugee inflows. Easier access to land, pre-existing support for migrants, and greater ethnic diversity can help the integration of refugees and returnees. Host community members who are more worried about economic issues are more likely to support exclusionary policies that restrict migrants’ access to labor markets, length of stay, location, access to public services, and right to reunification.
- The presence of displaced populations in host communities drives socioeconomic conditions and behavior that affect social cohesion. The arrival of displaced persons can improve long-term economic conditions in host communities, however evidence on the impact of displacement on income inequality in host communities is mixed. The short-term impact of IDPs on conflict depends on negative externalities (prices, services, housing, employment) and whether assistance mitigates these for host community members. Displacement affects social cohesion differently in urban and rural settings: in rural areas, economic contributions drive positive attitudes, while security concerns drive negative attitudes; in urban areas, economic competition drives negative perceptions. Refugee arrivals are unlikely to increase violence unless they heighten ethnic polarization.
- Policy interventions designed to influence the economic and security conditions of refugees and host populations affect social cohesion. Inclusionary policies (e.g., access to work, community integration) do not generate anti-immigrant attitudes and can foster long-term social cohesion. Vocational training programs improve pro-social behavior and attitudes among refugees but not among hosts. Communities near refugee settlements experience improvements in local development and no change (positive or negative) in attitudes toward migrants or migration policy. Forced migrants experience worse education outcomes than hosts, and financial aid does not reduce educational barriers. Cash transfers, such as pensions, do not impact attitudes toward migrants.
- Humanitarian assistance and multi-sectoral development investments targeting refugees, IDPs, and host communities can enhance welfare, mitigate the negative effects of displacement, generate positive externalities for host communities, and promote social cohesion. To prevent social tensions, governments and humanitarian and development agencies should provide both short- and long-term assistance to displaced and host communities, reducing real and perceived inequalities in service access and preventing negative attitudes toward new arrivals.
- Providing social assistance, health care services, and economic opportunities to refugees and IDPs and vulnerable host community members immediately following the displacement event may mitigate some of the long-term impacts of displacement. Displaced persons face short-term trauma and long-term disadvantages affecting their human, social, and physical capital. In the medium to long term, ongoing mental health services, social support, and legal assistance for property recovery and vital documents are essential to improve human capital and labor market participation.
- Multi-sectoral investments paired with participatory decision-making involving both the displaced and host communities can help ensure that the investments address the highest priorities and promote social cohesion. Approaches, like community-driven development (CDD), that involve displaced persons and hosts in identifying, implementing, and overseeing investments can deliver essential infrastructure and services while fostering positive interactions. The effectiveness of participatory approaches stems from everyday interactions that improve host perceptions of the displaced, the high levels of social capital among refugees and IDPs, and evidence that trained facilitators can promote empathy through perspective-sharing exercises.
- Both short- and long-term investments are crucial, and multi-sectoral operations must be tailored to urban and rural contexts, as well as camp and non-camp settings. In many contexts, refugees and hosts face multi-dimensional poverty, necessitating multi-sectoral development investments across basic services, economic opportunities, environmental management, and shelter. Tailoring these projects to specific contexts ensures they address unique needs effectively.
The report highlights that, under certain conditions, refugee and IDP inflows and returns can create negative externalities that undermine social cohesion, especially if host communities are already struggling to access basic services and economic opportunities. However, these effects are not inevitable; they are influenced by policies, humanitarian and development responses, and the broader socioeconomic context.
The report concludes with several policy recommendations, as follows:
- In line with the United Nations Global Compact on Refugees, provide refugees the right to work, freedom of movement, access to social services, civil and birth registration, and right to accommodation.
- Ensure that humanitarian assistance and development investments target both displaced persons and host communities.
- Invest in infrastructure and services to meet the increased demand due to population shocks and use these investments to also address existing vulnerabilities in host communities.
- Near-term relief and assistance should be provided to both host communities and displaced persons following displacement to offset negative externalities on prices and jobs.
- Provide relevant support such as mental health services for the trauma endured during displacement, ongoing social assistance to address hardships, and legal assistance to recover property and obtain documents to address displaced persons’ longer-term wellbeing and self-reliance.
- Tailor investments to the unique needs of urban and rural areas hosting the displaced, which may include labor market integration and housing support in urban areas and access to land, income-generating opportunities, infrastructure, and services in rural areas.
- Employ participatory approaches, trained facilitators, and public messaging to promote positive interactions and empathy between host residents and displaced persons.
- Pair multisectoral investments with participatory approaches to ensure investments address the needs of displaced persons and host communities.